As soon as that tribune was no longer present, the act could be completed as if there had never been a veto. Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. [but, in the next 100 years, only 32 families provided 90 plebeian consuls, originally served during the time between the death of one king and the qualification of another, later appointed to conduct elections for consul or dictator. [15], The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate. The king chose several officers to assist him,[9] and unilaterally granted them their powers. [30] The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. [Hans Beck; Antonio Duplá; Martin Jehne; et al] -- "The consulate was the focal point of Roman politics. 2 plebeians for the first time in 131 B.C. [1][2] When the king died, his power reverted to the Roman Senate, which then chose an Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. [3] Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and after the Dictator was the censor, and then the consul, and then the praetor, and then the curule aedile, and then the quaestor. [28] When an emperor was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct,[28] and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor. Since this did create problems for some magistrates (in particular, consuls and praetors), these magistrates occasionally had their imperium "prorogued" (prorogare), which allowed them to retain the powers of the office as a Promagistrate. [Livy]. [1] Thus, both of these magistrates were referred to as "Extraordinary Magistrates". The magistrates (magistratus) were elected by the People of Rome, which consisted of plebeians (commoners) and patricians (aristocrats). [1] He was the chief executive, chief priest, chief lawgiver, chief judge, and the sole commander-in-chief of the army. The Roman magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank, such as two praetors, then it was called par potestas (negation of powers). While the king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he typically wanted to have such declarations ratified by the popular assembly. Dictator was an extraordinary magistrate normally elected in times of emergency (usually military) for a short period. In war, the king occasionally commanded only the infantry, and delegated command over the cavalry to the commander of his personal bodyguards, the Tribune of the Celeres. [43] Often, the dictator functioned principally as the master of the infantry (and thus the legions), while the Master of the Horse (as the name implies) functioned as the master of the cavalry. Histoire du cens jusqu'à la fin de la République romaine. During the transition from monarchy to republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the executive (the Roman king) to the Roman Senate. [18], Tribunes could use their sacrosanctity to order the use of capital punishment against any person who interfered with their duties. [18] Praetors administered civil law, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership. [34], they were independent of all other powerful magistrates, Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom, Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic, Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu, The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero, What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_magistrate&oldid=949786949, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974), A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999), This page was last edited on 8 April 2020, at 14:39. [14], Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. [35] On a couple of rare occasions (such as during the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus), a tribune might use a form of blanket obstruction, which could involve a broad veto over all governmental functions. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. [9] The king sometimes deferred to precedent, often simply out of practical necessity. The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" (Imperium), which was held only by consuls and praetors. [11], One check over a magistrate's power was collegiality (collega), which required that each magisterial office be held concurrently by at least two people. or 400 (?) If a magistrate, an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune, the tribune could 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person' (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. [34] Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. [45] It declared "videant consules ne res publica detrimenti capiat" ("let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm") which, in effect, vested the consuls with dictatorial powers. CONSULS 2, elected annually from 509 B.C. Paris : Sirey, 1968 (OCoLC)631090290: Document Type: Book: All Authors / Contributors: Georges Piéri [1] His power, in practice, was absolute. Rome (Empire) Finanzwirtschaft; Geschichte; Römisches Reich; Belastingen. Urban quaestors had several important responsibilities, such as the management of the public treasury, (the aerarium Saturni)[20] where they monitored all items going into, and coming out of, the treasury. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to. This ranking flipped every month, between the two consuls. [40] Ordinary magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) retained their offices, but lost their independence and became agents of the dictator. [22], Every five years, two censors were elected for an eighteen-month term. If a magistrate was threatening to take action against a citizen, that citizen could yell "provoco ad populum", which would appeal the magistrate's decision to a tribune. In the absence of both senior and junior consuls from the city, the Urban praetor governed Rome, and presided over the Roman Senate and Roman assemblies. The Roman magistrates were elected officials of the Roman Republic. In many respects, he functioned more as a parallel magistrate (like an inferior co-consul) than he did as a direct subordinate. [3] If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate of a lower rank, then it was called intercessio,[2] where the magistrate literally interposed his higher rank to obstruct the lower-ranking magistrate. Each Roman magistrate was vested with a degree of power. Technically they outranked all other ordinary magistrates (including consuls and praetors). patrician, from the fall of the Kings. [38] A tribune had to assess the situation, and give the magistrate his approval before the magistrate could carry out the action. Instead, they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman King was the principal executive magistrate. Any act by the censor that resulted in an expenditure of public money required the approval of the senate.[18]. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the King of Rome was the principal executive magistrate. [32] The treasury was a repository for documents, as well as for money. Censeurs (Magistrature romaine) Rome -- Conditions économiques. In addition, they did not have the power to convene the Roman Senate or Roman assemblies. When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit. Always a patrician. Upon an order by the senate, the consul was responsible for raising and commanding an army. Any Roman citizen had the absolute right to appeal any ruling by a magistrate to a plebeian tribune. Since tribunes were technically not magistrates, they had no magisterial powers ("major powers" or maior potestas), and thus could not rely on such powers to veto. Two PLEBEIAN AEDILES were elected annually from among and by the plebeians, beginning (trad.) [33] The plebeian aedile functioned as the tribune's assistant, and often performed similar duties as did the curule aediles (discussed above). [19] While abroad, the consul had absolute power over his soldiers, and over any Roman province. Thus, they acted as a popular check over the senate (through their veto powers), and safeguarded the civil liberties of all Roman citizens. Defined narrowly, imperium simply gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. It wasn't until after they lost the power to maintain order in the city, however, that they truly became powerless, and the office disappeared entirely during the 3rd century. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,[28][29] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate. [43] The dictator, while not elected by the people, was technically a magistrate since he was nominated by an elected consul. [12] After the nominee was elected by the popular assembly, the senate ratified the election by passing a decree. [7], By virtue of his proconsular powers, the emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. [44] Whenever a dictator's term ended, the term of his Master of the Horse ended as well. By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates as they were elected only by the plebeians, but no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions. Tribunes, by virtue of their sacrosanctity as the representatives of the people, could veto anything or anyone. [20] Other praetors had foreign affairs-related responsibilities, and often acted as governors of the provinces. [9][10], The period between the death of a king, and the election of a new king, was known as the interregnum. [23] No other ordinary magistrate could veto a censor because no ordinary magistrate technically outranked a censor. first plebeian elected in 422 (?) The Roman magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. While a dictator could ignore the right of Provocatio, that right, as well as the plebeian tribune's independence, theoretically still existed during a dictator's term. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. The executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. [3] Dictators (a temporary position for emergencies) had the highest level of power. Histoire du cens jusqu'à la fin de la République romaine. first plebeians in 300 B.C. If they disobeyed the dictator, they could be forced out of office. [28] They also had the power to repair and preserve temples, sewers and aqueducts, to maintain public records, and to issue edicts. If a consul died before his term ended, another consul (the consul suffectus), was elected to complete the original consular term. Paris : Sirey, 1968 (OCoLC)540583622 Online version: Pieri, Georges. This is what gave the office its prestige. [2] To prevent this, magistrates used a principle of alteration, assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority, or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions. This, in effect, eliminated the monopoly that the aristocracy had over this power. [43] The Master of the Horse had constitutional command authority (imperium) equivalent to a praetor, and often, when they authorized the appointment of a dictator, the senate specified who was to be the Master of the Horse. A censor could reassign a citizen to a different tribe (a civil unit of division), or place a punitive mark (nota) besides a man's name on the register. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. [7][16] Once a consul's term ended, he held the honorary title of consulare for the rest of his time in the senate, and had to wait for ten years before standing for re-election to the consulship. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. This suspended civil government, declared martial law,[25] and vested the consuls with Dictatorial powers. [6] After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. [16][17] Two Consuls were elected every year, and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters. [27], Under the empire, the citizens were divided into three classes, and for members of each class, a distinct career path was available (known as the cursus honorum). The Tribal Assembly, while under the presidency of a higher magistrate (either a consul or praetor), elected the two curule aediles. His power, in practice, was absolute. Any action taken in spite of a valid provocatio was on its face illegal.[39]. [36] While a tribune could veto any act of the senate, the assemblies, or the magistrates, he could only veto the act, and not the actual measure. [13] Sometimes, the case was brought before the College of tribunes, and sometimes before the Plebeian Council (popular assembly). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens from the Gods (auspicia), which could be used to obstruct political opponents. He was the chief priest, lawgiver, judge, and the sole commander of the army. Each dictator appointed a Master of the Horse (magister equitum or Master of the Knights), to serve as his most senior lieutenant. first elected in 444 B.C., to meet plebeian demand to be included in chief magistracy, but without having to elect a plebeian to be consul; there were no consuls elected when Consular Tribunes were elected. An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of Provincia, which required a division of responsibilities. While in the city of Rome, the consul was the head of the Roman government. Aediles had wide-ranging powers over day-to-day affairs inside the city of Rome, and over the maintenance of public order. In addition, a series of laws were passed, which placed additional checks on the power of the dictator. [33] Under the empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct,[34] and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies. [18], The praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies,[20] and, eventually, began to act as chief judges over the courts. Magistrates often chose which quaestor accompanied them abroad,[31] and these quaestors often functioned as personal secretaries[28] responsible for the allocation of money, including army pay. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the King of Rome was the principal executive magistrate. In 217 BC, a law was passed that gave the popular assemblies the right to nominate dictators. By claiming to witness an omen, a magistrate could justify the decision to end a legislative or senate meeting, or the decision to veto a colleague. [8] Mark Antony abolished the offices of dictator and Master of the Horse during his Consulship in 44 BC, while the offices of Interrex and Roman censor were abolished shortly thereafter. After the Dictator was the Consul (the highest position if not an emergency), and then the Praetor, and then the Censor, and then the curule aedile, and finally the quaestor.